But Shivaji was ambitious and seeing the weakness of Bijapur, asserted his independence. Seeing his growing power, Aurangzeb appointed Jai Singh of Amber to deal with Shivaji. In 1665, Purander fort of Marathas was besieged by Jai Singh and a treaty between the two was signed. As a part of the treaty, Shivaji visited Aurangzeb’s court in Agra (1666 AD), where he was made a prisoner but escaped. He declared himself the independent ruler of the Maratha kingdom and was crowned as the Chattrapati (1674). He made Raigad fort as his capital and was determined to harass the Mughals. He then turned his mission towards defeating the Bahamani kings in the south and making a strong Maratha state until his death in 1680.

His son Sambhaji (1680 AD – 1689 AD), succeded the kingdom. However, he was soon captured and executed and his infant son Sahu (Shivaji II), was imprisoned by Aurangzeb. Rajaram, Sambaji’s brother sought refuge in Jinji on the west coast and continued to resist Mughals till his death (1700 AD). He was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji III under the regency of his mother,Tara Bai. However, after the death of Auragzeb, Sahu was released and his claim for the throne was strongly opposed by Tarabai. In the civil war that broke out, Sahu was victorious with the help of Balaji Vishwanath, the founder of the line of Peshwas. He was made Peshwa in 1713 AD and Tarabai set up a rival court in Kolhapur.

Under the new leadership of the Peshwas, the Maratha kingdom flourished and increased its territory to the north, where there was no strong successor of Aurangzeb. However, they lost their power after the defeat in the third battle of Panipat in 1761 against an invading Afghan, Ahmed Shah Abdali. Finally, it was Lord Wellington of the East India Company who defeated the Marathas in 1803 and put an end to Maratha power in the war of 1817-19 AD.

On his succession to the throne, the first thing he had to face was revolts in Bhundelkhand and the Deccan.The former he put down easily and the latter came into control with difficulty. Meanwhile the Marathas also emerged as a major threat to the authority of the Mughals. The Famous peacock throne and the Red Fort were completed by him. The Taj Mahal was also built in his beautiful wife’s memory. His failing health started a war of succession amongst his four sons in 1657.

Aurangzeb (1658 AD – 1707 AD)

Aurangzeb, the third son emerged victorious and imprisoned his father in Agra fort till his death. He ruled for almost 50 years. During his long reign the Mughal empire reached its territorial climax. At its height, it stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south, and from the Hindu Kush in the west to Chittagong in the east. He was an orthodox in his outlook and kept himself within the narrow confines of the Islamic law. He discarded Akbar’s secular principles and re-introduced Jaziya with severity and destroyed many temples. This did not make Muslims more loyal to the Islamic state, although, the Hindus got somewhat alienated.

Most of his time was spent in trying to put down the revolts in different parts of his empire. While the empire was rent by strife and revolt, the new Maratha power was growing and consolidating itself in western India. Shivaji, the Maratha King, stopped Aurangzeb’s mission of expanding towards the south. However after Shivaji’s death Aurangzeb accomplished his mission of southward expansion. Apart from him, no one else, except the Britishers held India under a single rule.

Aurangzeb, the last of grand Mughals, tried to put the clock back, and in his attempt broke up the empire. After his death, the Mughal empire collapsed with internal conflicts among the successors and was reduced to the area around Delhi. The various provinces declared their independence and the Marathas under the leadership of Peshwas, gradually extended their hold in North India. Foreign invasion of Nadir shah in 1729 AD and Ahmed Shah Abdali in 1747-61 AD further weakened the empire. The last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was imprisoned by the Britishers after the 1857 mutiny.

Partly because the great majority of Muslims in India were converts from Hinduism and partly because of long contact, Hindus and Muslims in India developed numerous common traits, habits , ways of living and artistic tastes. Especially in northern India – in music, painting, architecture, food, and clothes

He consolidated the empire. Daring and reckless, an able general, and yet gentle and full of compassion. An idealist and a dreamer, and yet a man of action and a leader of men who roused the passionate loyalty of his followers. He was only thirteen, when he came to the throne. His first conflict was with Hemu, a general of Adil Shah, under whom the Afghan resistance had regrouped. At the second battle of Panipat (1556 AD), Hemu was defeated and Akbar reoccupied Delhi and Agra.

Akbar annexed Malwa and brought a major part of Rajasthan under his control. He built the Buland Darwaza, after his successful campaign in Gujarat. Most of the Rajputs recognised his suzerainty, except Mewar, which continued to resist under Rana Pratap and his son Amar Singh. By according broad religious toleration to his subjects, with the abolition of the pilgrimage tax (1563 AD) and the abolition of Jaziya – a tax imposed on non-muslims (1564 AD) and by stopping the practice of forcible conversion of prisoners of war, Akbar strengthened the Mughal state.

After his success in military activities and administration, Akbar’s insatiable quest and his personal need led him to build the Ibadat-Khana – Hall of prayer (1575 AD). Initially it was open only to the Sunnis but later in 1578, it was opened to people of all religions. However, in 1582, he discontinued the debates in the Ibadat-Khana. Later the academic, spiritual and metaphysical aspects of it crystallized into Tauhid-i-Ilahi (Divine Monotheism). Akbar did not create a new religion but only suggested a new religious path based on the common truths of all religions. The word Din (Faith) of Din-i-Ilahi, was applied after eighty years.

Akbar believed that a ruler was the guardian of his subjects and had to look after their welfare irrespective of their sect or creed. He believed in the policy of Sulh-i-kul (peace to all). Because of his discerning mind, broad vision and humanitarian outlook, he is regarded as one of the great rulers in history.

Salim (1605 AD – 1627 AD)

Akbar’s son, Salim succeeded him as Jahangir after his death. He strengthened his control over Bengal and his four successive campaigns forced Amar Singh of Mewar to accept his suzerainty. The Mughal empire became more vulnerable to attacks from central and western Asia. Towards the end of his reign, he had to deal with the rebellion of his son Shah Jahan.

He was very famous for his sense of justice. Even a common man could easily approach the Emperor for justice during his reign. It was at this time The East India Company was established in India. An important event of his reign was the active interest taken by Nur Jahan, his queen, in matters of the State and she also ruled the empire when he was ill.

Babar (1526 AD – 1530 AD)

Babar founder of the Mughal dynasty, was the king of Kabul. He was invited to India to fight against Ibrahim Lodhi. He was the first king to bring artillery to India and succeeded because of :
The cavalry that he had brought from central Asia, which was new to the Indian army,
He arranged soldiers in such a way that they could be easily moved from one part to the other
He was a good general.

Before his death, he had made himself the master of the Punjab, Delhi and the Ganga plains as far as Bihar. He wrote Tuzuk-i-Babari an autobiography, containing a lively description of India, in Turkish

Humayun (1530 AD – 1556 AD)

He inherited a vast unconsolidated empire and an empty treasury. He also had to deal with the growing power of the Afghan Sher Shah, from the east, who had Bihar and Bengal under him. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in Kannauj (1540 AD) and Humayun passed the next twelve years in exile. In 1555, after Sher Shah’s death, Humayun regained the throne from his weak successor.

Akbar, his son, succeed him in 1556 AD, and consolidated the empire. He was such a good builder that the edifice he had erected lasted for another hundred years inspite of inadequate successors.

There was great encouragement of Indian culture, occasionally with variations and additions to it. Indian music was adopted as a whole and with enthusiasm by the Muslim Courts and the nobility. Some of its greatest masters have been Muslims. Literature and poetry were also encouraged and among the noted poets in Hindi some were Muslims. Ibrahim Adil Shah, the ruler of Bijapur, wrote a treatise in Hindi on Indian music.

There were many contacts with India during this period and the Arabs learnt much of Indian mathematics, astronomy and medicine. And yet, it would appear, that the initiative for all these contacts came chiefly from the Arabs and though the Arabs learnt much from India, the Indians did not learn much from the Arabs. Delhi flourished as an imperial capital for the Mughals and spread southwards.

It is wrong and misleading to talk of a Muslim invasion of India or of the Muslim period in India, just as it would be wrong to refer to the coming of the British to India as a Christian invasion, or to call the British period in India as a Christian period. Through choice or circumstances or both, the Afghan rulers and those who had come with them, merged into India. Their dynasties became completely Indianised with their roots in India, looking upon India as their homeland, and the rest of the world as foreign.

The most remarkable figure in the Bahamani kingdom was Firuz Shah Bahamani (1397 AD – 1422 AD), who fought three major battles with the Vijayanagara Empire without any major result. He was well acquainted with religious and natural sciences. He wanted to make the Deccan the cultural centre of India. Ferhishta calls him an orthodox Muslim, his only weakness being his fondness for drinking wine and listening to music. Firuz Shah was compelled to abdicate in favour of his brother Ahmad Shah I, who was called a saint (wali) on account of his association with the famous sufi Gesu Daraz. He invaded Warangal and annexed most of its territories.

The loss of Warangal changed the balance of power in south India. The Bahamani kingdom gradually extended and reached its climax under the prime ministership of Mahmud Gawan (1466 AD – 1481 AD). One of the most difficult problems which faced the Bahamanis was a strife among the nobles, who were divided into old-comers (Deccanis) and new-comers(Afaqis or gharibs). Since, Gawan was a new-comer, it was hard for him to win the confidence of the Deccanis. His broad policy of conciliation, could not stop the party strife. In 1482, Gawan who was over seventy years, was executed by Sultan Muhammad Shah of the Deccan.

After his death, the party strife became more intense and various governors became independent and were finally divided into five parts, namely, Adil Shahi of Bijapur, Qutub Shahi of Golconda, Nizam Shahi of Ahmadnagar, Barid Shahi of Bidar and Imad Shahi of Berar. This kingdom together crusaded against Vijayanagara Empire and defeated it in 1565. Later on, Imad Shahi was conquered by Nizamshah (1574 AD) and Barid Shahi was annexed by Adilshah (1619 AD). These three kingdoms played a leading role in the Deccan politics till their absorption in the Mughal empire during the seventeenth century. It was Aurangzeb, the Mughal king, who after the death of Shivaji, marched towards the south and annexed Bijapur (1686 AD) and Golconda (1689 AD) and brought an end to the Bahamani kingdom.

One of the largest domes of the world, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and Charminar at Hyderabad were the fine examples of architecture of this time. The Bahamanis, in many respects were similar to the Delhi sultanate. Their income came almost entirely from land and the administration revolved around the assessment and collection of land revenue. The Bahamani kingdom acted as a cultural bridge between the north and the south. The culture which developed as a result had its own specific features which were distinct from north India. These cultural traditions were continued by the successors states and also influenced the development of Mughal culture during the period.

Bukka succeeded Harihara in 1356 AD and ruled till 1377 AD. The rising power of the empire brought it into clash with many powers both in the north and in the south. In the south they had to fight with the Sultan of Madurai for about four decades, till they wiped it out in 1377 AD. In the north the Bahamanis were their strong enemies.

The interest of the Vijayanagara and Bahamani empires clashed on three areas : The Tungabhadra doab (for wealth and resources), the Krishna-Godavari delta (which was fertile and had numerous ports for foreign trade) and control of Konkan (extremely fertile and included the port of Goa, which was an important outlet in the west). The clash was also raged for the control of diamond mines of Golconda. Military conflict between these kingdoms were almost regular and resulted in the widespread devastation of the contested areas and neighbouring territories and a considerable loss to life and property. Both committed various barbarities. Finally both sides were exhausted and decided to conclude treaty and agreed to avoid cruelty in war.

After the death of Deva Raya II in 1446 AD, there was a series of civil wars among the various contenders to the throne. After some time, the throne was usurped by the king’s minister, Saluva, who restored the internal law and order. This dynasty also soon ended and a new Tuluva dynasty was founded by Krishnadeva Raya (1509 AD – 1530 AD). Under him the empire emerged as the strongest military power in the south. After his death there was a struggle among his relations as his sons were all minor. Ultimately in 1543, Sadashiva Raya ascended the throne and ruled till 1567, however the real power was in the hand of Rama Raja, who played off the various muslim powers against one another.

In a series of wars Rama Raja completely defeated the Bijapur ruler to inflict humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar. It seems Rama Raja had no larger purpose than to maintain a balance of power favourable to Vijayanagara. The five broken Bahamani kingdoms, did a combined crusade on Vijayanagara at Bannihatti in 1565 and in the battle of Rakshasa-Tangadi, Rama Raja was surrounded, taken prisoner and immediately executed and this brought an end to the Best Empire of the South. It was thoroughly looted and left in ruins.

The economy continued to grow on the Chola pattern and Hinduism was restored. Architecture and culture reached their pinnacle and saw the Golden Era in the south under Krishna Deva Raya. At its peak, the kingdom extended from Cuttack in east to Goa in the West and from Raichur Doab in the North to the Indian Ocean in the South. He wrote Amuktamalyada, a Telugu compendium on polity.

Bahlul Lodhi established himself in Punjab after the Timur’s invasion. The most important Lodhi Sultan was Sikandar Lodhi (1489 – 1517), who controlled the Ganga Valley as far as Bengal. He moved his capital from Delhi, to be able to control the kingdom better, to a new town which later become famous as the city of Agra. The last, Lodhi Ibrahim, asserted his absolute power and did not consider the tribal feelings. This lead to his making enemies with them. Finally they plotted with Babar and succeeded in overthrowing him in 1526 at the first battle of Panipat.

As the power of the Sultanate declined, a number of other kingdoms arose.
In Western India – Malwa and Gujarat,
In Eastern India – Jaunpur and Bengal,
In Northern India – Kashmir, and
In the Deccan and the south – The Vijayanagara and the Bahamani.

As the Islamic population in India swelled, the identity of the Indian Moslem acquired a new definition. Islam now actively influenced most facets of life. The Hindu elite adopted the purdha system and their language began to be written in Arabic script, leading to a new language, Urdu. Calligraphy came into its own and was raised to the highest form of aesthetic expression.

Around this time on the north-western part of India, especially around Punjab a new religion Sikhism started to gain popularity

Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq (1325 AD – 1351 AD) succeeded his father and was referred to as an ill-starred idealist, whose experiments generally ended in failure. He extended the kingdom beyond India, into Central Asia.

To meet the the expenses of the large army Muhammad increased the tax but the peasants refused and rebelled. Though the rebellion was suppressed, the taxation policy had to be revised. He decided to issue token coins in brass and copper which had the same value as silver coins. But due to the absence of a central mint, people began to forge the new coins, and the token coins had to be discontinued. He also decided to move his capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daulatabad), in order to control the Deccan and extend the empire into the south. The plan ended in failure because of discontent amongst those who had been forced to move to Deogir and Muhammad also found that he could not keep a watch on the northern frontier.

In 1334 bubonic plague wiped out more than half his army, and the army ceased to be effective. Due to this, in 1334 the Pandyan kingdom (Madurai) rejected the authority of the sultanate and this was followed by Warangal. In 1336 the Vijayanagara empire and in 1337 the Bahamani kingdom were founded. They built magnificent capitals and cities with many splendid buildings, promoted arts and also provided law and order and the development of commerce and handicrafts. Thus while the forces of disintegration gradually triumphed in north India, south India and the Deccan had a long spell of stable government.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 AD – 1388 AD) succeeded Muhammad. Having become sultan with the support of the nobles and the theologians, he had to appease them. His death was followed by civil war among his descendants.

The sultanate became weak and in 1398, the Mongols, under the leadership of Timur (Tamerlane), mercilessly sacked and plundered Delhi. Timur returned to central Asia leaving his nominee to rule in the Punjab.

Alauddin Khilji (1296 AD – 1316 AD) treacherously murdered his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin. By harsh methods, he cowed down the nobles and made them completely subservient to the crown. He was ambitious and dreamt of an all India empire.

Over a twenty five years period, Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan was brought under his control. To solve the water problems in summer, he constructed lot of Baolis (Wells). His famous general Malik Kafur led the campaign (1308 AD – 1312 AD) to the south and defeated the Yadavas of Deogiri, the Kakityas of Warangal and the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra.

Alauddin also repelled the Mongols successfully. His military success was because of the creation of a large standing army directly recruited and paid by the state. He revoked all grants made by previous sultans, introduced price control covering almost the entire market and rationed the grain. In order to effectively subordinate nobles, he banned drinking of intoxicants. The sultan’s permission was necessary before marriage could be arranged among the member of nobility, so that marriage alliances of a political nature could be prevented. No further rebellion took place during his life time, but in the long run his methods proved harmful to the dynasty. As the old nobility was destroyed, the new nobility was taught to accept any one who could ascend the throne of Delhi.

Kings followed in quick succession after his death, till in 1320, a group of officers led by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq raised the banner of revolt and put an end to the Khilji dynasty.

Ghori left his Indian possessions in the care of his former slave, General Qutb-ud- din Aibak. He played an important part in the expansion of the Turkish sultanate in India after the battle of Tarrain. On the death of his master, Aibak severed his links with Ghazni and asserted his independence, and founded Slave Dynasty mamluks. This helped to prevent India being drawn into central asian politics and enabled the Delhi Sultanate to develop independently.

Iltutmish (1210 AD – 1236 AD), son-in-law of Aibak – succeeded Aibak as the sultan by defeating Aibak’s son. Thus, the principle of heredity, of son succeeding his father was checked at the outset. Iltutmish must be regarded as the real consolidator of the Turkish conquests in north India. He gave the new state capital, Delhi, a monarchical form of government and governing class. He introduced Iqta – grant of revenue from a territory in lieu of salary. He maintained a central army and introduced coins of Tanka (silver) and Jital (copper). The famous Qutub Minar was completed during his reign. He despatched an expedition against the Chalukyas of Gujarat but it was repelled with losses.

During his last years, Iltutmish finally nominated his daughter Raziya (1236 AD – 1239 AD) to the throne. In order to assert her claim, Raziya had to contend against her brothers as well as against powerful Turkish nobles, and could rule only for three years. Though brief, her rule had a number of interesting features like the beginning of the struggle for power between the monarchy and the Turkish chiefs, sometimes called as the forty or Chahalgami. She sent an expedition against Ranthambhor to control the Rajputs, and successfully established law and order in the length and breadth of her kingdom. In 1239 AD, an internal rebellion broke out in which Raziya was imprisoned and killed by bandits.

The struggle between the monarchy and the Turkish chiefs continued till one of the Turkish chiefs Balban (Ulugh khan) (1265 AD – 1285 AD) ascended the throne. During the earlier period he held the position of naib or deputy to Nasiruddin Mahmud, a younger son of Iltultmish. He broke the Chahalgami and made the Sultan all important. Through changes in the organisation of the army and administration, he was able to control any revolt among the nobles. Balban got rid of many of his other rivals by fair and foul means. But there is no doubt that with his accession to the throne there began an era of strong, centralised government.

After Balban’s death, there was again confusion in Delhi for some times. In 1290, the Khilji’s, under the leadership of Jalaluddin Khilji, wrested power from the incompetent successor of Balban.