The urban middle class was extremely prominent in the first phase, spearheaded by the students. In the middle phase the focus shifted to the countryside, with militant students. Weakened by the brutal repression, the movement entered the last phase by the end of September and was characterised by terrorist activity by educated youths directed against communication, police and army installations, occasionally rising to the level of guerrilla war.

The major inspiration for carrying on relentless struggle against Britain came from Subhash Chandra Bose’s adventures abroad. He escaped from the Britishers during the Second world war, and fled to Germany from where he started to get help for India. After that he went to Japan and with the help of Chandrashekhar Azad, he started gathering support from Indians living in South-East Asia. “Give me blood and I’ll give you freedom” was his famous slogan during this campaign. In 1943, he formed Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army – INA) in Singapore, and gave his famous call ‘Delhi Chalo’.

I.N.A. was joined by large numbers of Indian residents of south-east asia and by the Indian soldiers and officers captured by the Japanese forces in Malaya, Singapore and Burma. After freeing Andaman and Nicobar Islands from the Britishers, INA waged war from Kohima, North-East India. However, with the defeat of Japan in 1945, INA slowly lost its power. Bose was killed in an air crash on his way to Tokyo. After the victory of the Allies in the war, INA soldiers were tried in the Red-Fort in 1945. Jawaharlal Nehru, stood by the INA and fought with the British for justice. The whole of India stood up for the INA and large demonstrations were held. The military tribunal held the INA officers guilty and condemned them to harsh punishments. Indians were so outraged on hearing the verdict , that the Government cancelled the punishment of the tribunals.

The Government went all out to repress the movement. By the end of 1943, over 91,838 people had been arrested, many were publicly flogged and tortured. The demonstrating crowd were machine-gunned and even bombed from the air. India had not witnessed such repression since the revolt of 1857. The Britishers had definitely come out victorious in their immediate confrontation and the remaining two and half years of war passed without any serious political challenge.

During the end of the war period, Wavell came as Viceroy and started negotiations with Indian leaders for constitutional settlement. He released all political leaders and convened a conference in Shimla in 1945. He proposed a new executive council which would be entirely Indian with Hindus and Muslims with equal representation, except for the Viceroy, himself and commander-in-chief and will not be responsible for the Central assembly. With the end of the war, the talks broke down because the Congress objected to an attempt to reduce its status to a pure Hindu party and Jinha insisted that all the Muslims members of the executive council should be nominated by his league.

The Karachi session was memorable for the resolution of guaranteeing Fundamental Rights to all and for the National Economic plan. It provided for Nationalisation of key industries and schemes for the welfare of workers and peasants. However, the second round table conference was a failure as no agreement was reached and the Civil Disobedience Movement was revived. Gandhi and other leaders were arrested and the movement gradually waned out. It was officially called off in May 1933 and Gandhiji withdrew from active politics.

The Third Round Table conference held in 1932, was not attended by the congress as the real Indian participation in the making of the constitution was negligible. In 1935, The Government of India Act was passed in the British parliament and provided for the establishment of an All-Indian Federation and new system of government on the basis of provincial autonomy. The Congress swept the polls in seven out of eleven provinces in July, 1937. However, the Muslim league secured less than a quarter of the seats reserved for Muslims. The Congress Ministry (1937-39) attended to the social welfare of people, released political prisoners and promoted civil liberties. However, due to the limitations of the Act of 1935, their achievements were few. In 1939, Subhash Chandra Bose, resigned his Presidentship of the Congress and founded the Forward Bloc.

The limited democracy sparked off separatist sentiments among the Muslims. The Muslim League fared miserably in the elections. Jinha – the permanent president of the league, began to spread the rumors that Muslim minority was in danger under Hindu Majority. He actively propagated the theory of two separate nations. In 1940, the league passed a resolution demanding Pakistan, by partitioning the country after Independence.

With the outbreak of World War II, Viceroy Lintlithgow, unilaterally associated India with Britain, without consulting Indian leaders. The Congress asserted that if Britain wanted the co-operation, it must give India the right of self-determination. The Britishers refused and the Congress ministers in province resigned. On October 1940, Gandhi gave the call for the limited Satyagraha, so that Britain’s war effort was not seriously hampered by mass movement.

The two main world developments that forced Britain to respond to India’s need were – Hitler’s invasion of Russia and the sudden Japanese campaign in December 1941, which within four months, threw the British out of Malaya, Singapore, Burma and threatened to end their empire in India. In March 1942 Cripps – Labour member of the war cabinet, promised dominion status with the right of secession, but refused to allow immediate transfer of effective power to Indians. The Indian leaders in turn refused to accept mere promises for the future and termed it as a Post dated cheque.

With the failure of Cripps mission things rapidly moved towards the Quit India movement, under Gandhiji.

In 1920, Under the leadership of Gandhi, the Non-cooperation movement was launched. This began with renunciation of honorary titles like ‘Sir’ given by the British. Thereafter it was followed by the boycott of legislatures, elections and other Government works. Foreign clothes were burnt and Khadi became a symbol of freedom. The movement was a great success despite firing and arrests. By the end of 1921, all important national leaders, except Gandhi, were in jail, along with 3000 others. However, in February 1922, at Chaurichaura, Uttar Pradesh, violence erupted and Gandhi called off the movement. He was imprisoned and the movement was over.

In 1927, the British government appointed the Simon Commission to suggest if any further reforms were needed in the Government system of 1919. All the members of this commission were English. At the Congress meeting at Madras in 1927, it was decided to boycott the commission.

In 1929 at its Lahore session, under the president ship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress adopted a resolution of Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence). On December 31 1929, the Tricolour flag of freedom was unflured and 26th January 1930 was decided to be celebrated as the Independence day every year. As per the resolution, Civil disobedience movement was started so as not to submit to British rule any longer and Gandhi launched the famous Dandi march to break the Salt Law. On 12th March 1930 the march started from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi. The stretch of 375 km. was covered in 26 days with 78 followers. The whole of India joined the campaign to boycott foreign goods and refused to pay taxes. Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan or Frontier Gandhi, started Khudai Kidmatgar movement in the North-West Frontier. The Government went back to its brutal force and about 90,000 people were imprisoned within a year. In Peshawar, the Gharwal regiment refused to shoot a demonstrator. In Nagaland Rani Gaidilita, a 13 year old girl raised the flag against the Britishers and was put into life imprisonment in 1932. Nehru hearing this uttered A day will come when India will remember her and Cherish her. She was released after Independence.

The prominent leaders, called extremists, were Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928), from Punjab, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) from Maharashtra, Bipin Chandra Pal from Bengal. They together formed the famous trio, Lal-Bal-Pal, whose activities were a source of alarm for the British. Tilak raised the famous slogan Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it and his paper Kesari in Marathi and Maratha in English became the mouthpiece of the new group of nationalists.

On 16th October 1905, Bengal was partitioned by Curzon on the pretext of it being too big to administer. Instead of dividing it on the basis of non Bengali areas, the division was on the basis of Hindus and Muslims. Britishers thought that by partitioning, they would succeed in dividing Hindu politicians of west and east Bengal and increase Hindu – Muslim tensions. The tremor of partition was felt throughout India and was regarded as an insult and challenge to Indian Nationalism. A movement was launched under the moderates. Militant and Revolutionary leadership took over in the later stages. New method of protests Swadeshi and Swaraj became the slogan of the common man and the whole of India was drawn into the National movement.

Swadeshi which means of ones own country implied that people should use only the goods produced in India and boycott foreign goods. Swaraj on the other hand meant Self-Government. In 1915-16 under the leadership of Tilak, Annie Besent and Subramaniya Iyer the Home Rule League was started. This demanded the grant of self-government to India after the war. The growing nationalist feeling and the urge for national unity produced two historic developments at the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress in 1916. Firstly the two wings of Congress – Moderate and Extremist, were re-united. Secondly the Muslim League sank their old differences and put up common political demands before the government on the condition of separate electorates. This unity popularly known as Lucknow Pact, based on the two separate entities of Hindus and Muslims, left the way open to the future resurgence of communalism in Indian Politics.

After World War I, the Britishers came with some reforms. Indian Nationalism was, however, not appeased. It had advanced far beyond such halting concessions. It was in fact, to enter its last and most vigorous phase – The Gandhian Era.

The series of devastating famines between 1866 – 1901 and the British cruelty shattered the dream of the nationalists. In the post 1857 phase, Britishers resorted to the divisive forces of communalism and casteism to maintain their supremacy and stopped the social reforms. Moreover, Indians suffered from growing unemployment and most of the better paid jobs were reserved for the British.

Lord Lytton passed the Vernacular Press Act in 1878, which imposed a severe restriction on the vernacular press – a major instrument in spreading nationalist ideas. Lord Rippon passed the Ilbert Bill Act in 1833, a law which gave Indian magistrates the right to try Europeans. The Europeans in India agitated and the bill was withdrawn. The racial discrimination horrified the nationalist Indians and they realised the need of organising themselves to get their demands accepted. There were various meetings in different presidencies but it was not collective. With the initiative of Allen Octavian Hume, in 1885 the Indian National Congress was formed and it became the the chief organization representing the will of the common people and led the Indians in their struggle for freedom.

The first meeting was held in December 1885 at Bombay under the president ship of Womesh Chandra Banerjee and it held its sessions every year in December at different parts of the country. During its early years, it pressed the need for giving Indians greater power in legislative councils and to check the Drain of wealth – a theory propounded by Dadabhai Navroji. The main strategy at this time was Petition, Pray and Protest.

The policies and interests of the British in India were determined by the industrialists, the most powerful section in British society. Indian resources were also utilized to serve the interests of the British empire in other parts of the world and in costly wars.

The British Policy

The queen’s proclamations of 1858, promised not to extend British territories in India by annexing Princely states and they were subordinated to the British government. By the act of 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India. This implied that Britain would protect the Indian states from internal as well as external danger and get the unlimited powers to intervene in the internal affairs of the State. Thus after 1857, India was divided into two parts – British India, directly governed by the British government and the Indian states ruled by Indian princes. Britishers gradually stopped their support to the reforms which resulted in the preservation of social evils. After 1857 mutiny, they followed the Divide and rule policy, in a aim to create a rift between the Indian Hindus and Muslims.

The impact of modern western culture brought into being a few movements which contributed much to the making of modern India. Many Indians realized that the reform of social institutions and religious outlook of people was a necessary pre-condition for the growth of national unity.

The Economic Impact

Indian economy was transferred into a colonial economy whose nature and structure was determined by the needs of the British economy. High revenue demands and rigid manners of collection forced peasants into the clutches of the moneylenders. Expanding population put greater pressure on land as there was no corresponding development of industry. Britain’s policy of one-way free trade ruined India’s urban and rural industries, which further added to the pressure on land.

Development of Transport and Trade

A cheap and easy system of transport was important for the flow of British ready made goods and the export of raw material to Britain on large scale. Roads were improved and steam ships were introduced. But real improvement came with the railways which started in 1853, between Bombay V.T. and Thane. In her trade with other countries, India usually maintained a favourable balance, which were used for paying off various kinds of dues charged on India by Britain.

Development of Industries

Upto 1914, Industrial development was mainly restricted in the production of export of those goods with the natural advantage (jute, tea etc.) and in those areas where competition with British counterparts was not serious (coarse goods). During the inter-war period of 1914 – 39, it was in the production of consumer goods for mass market within India, mainly due to war tariffs and depression. Finally the last decade of British rule from 1939-47, brought another phase – the production of capital goods for the domestic market.

After nearly a century of British rule, the spirit of revolt was growing, especially among the feudal chiefs and their followers. Even amongst the masses, discontent and an intense anti-British feeling was wide spread. In March 1857, the Indian army at Barrackpore mutinied and this spread rapidly and assumed the character of a popular rebellion and a war of Indian independence.

By 1857 the material for mass upheaval was ready and required only a spark to set it afire. The episode of greased cartridges provided this spark and the revolt was started by Mangal Pande. Immediately the revolt engulfed North and Central India. On May 10, 1857 sepoys stationed at Meerut mutinied and marched to Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal Emperor, as the Emperor of India.

Causes for the Mutiny

The drain of Indian wealth to England.
Heavy and Severe Taxation on common people.
The new land revenue system ruined many peasant properties.
Doctrine of Lapse forced Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi and Nana Sahib to revolt.
The wide spread activities of Christian missionaries endangered religious sentiments.
Discrimination in the promotion of natives as against that of Europeans caused discontent amongst the sepoys.
Dumping policy of ready made goods in Indian Market and destruction of cottage industries

Reasons for Failure of the Mutiny

Absence of modern weapons and other materials of war against the large and well equipped Britishers.
Lack of co-ordination among the forces fighting in different regions.
Most of the Indian princes and chiefs did not participate.
Educated Indians believed only British rule can reform and modernize India.
General public did not actively participate.

Consequences of the Mutiny

End of the East India Company rule in India.
British Crown took over the Indian Administration.
Revolt paved the way for the rise of the modern national movement.

Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a Council of four members was appointed and the first Governor-General Warren Hastings (1774-85 AD) was empowered to conduct the Company’s affairs with the Councils advice. The Governors of Bombay and Madras were placed under the control of the Governor-General of Calcutta. Under this Act, periodical reports on the civil and military administration had to be submitted to the British Prime Minister. The second important step was taken by the Regulating Act, 1773. Through this parliamentary act, the British government became directly involved in the affairs of India by removing political power from the hands of the trading community.

By the Pitts India Act of 1784, Britan set up a Board of Control in Britain, which could fully control the company’s civil, military and revenue affairs in India. However, the company had the monopoly of trade and could appoint and dismiss its officials. From this the Dual Government of the British in India began and continued till 1858. The presidencies of Bombay and Madras were brought under the Governor-General.

Governor-General Wellesley (1798-1805), introduced the Subsidiary system. Under this the Indian rulers entered into treaties with the Company acknowledging its supremacy; permitting its troop to be stationed in their kingdom and paying the cost of their armies, or ceding a part of their territory. Governor-General William Bentinck (1828-35) brought many reforms like suppression of Sati (burning of widows alive in the funeral pyres of their dead husband) and he also suppressed the thugs (a band of murderous decoits who were a terror to the travellers.)

Trade and Industry

Britain was more than just an imperial power. It saw the greatest economic and technological advance in the history of the world: the Industrial Revolution. From 1600 to 1757, the East India Company was a trading corporation and encouraged Indian exports. However, the Industrial revolution of the eighteenth century changed the entire pattern of trade. India fitted perfectly into Britain’s scheme of things. India’s function was to primarily supply raw materials and buy back cheap industrially produced ready made goods which the British dumped in the Indian markets. They simultaneously closed their markets for endogenously produced Indian goods by imposing prohibitive duties; depriving millions of their livelihood.

Social and Cultural policy

The British followed a policy of non-interference in the religious, social and cultural fields till 1813, when a delicately balanced policy of partial modernization was adopted. This change was advocated by Christian missionaries in a hope that it would eventually lead to the country’s conversion to Christianity.